According to V. A. Kukharenko
To phono-graphical EMs belong: onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance, and graphon
To graphical EMs : italics, capitalization, spacing of lines, and spacing of graphemes, such as hyphenation and multiplication.
And about graphical EMs separately:
Capitalization [kə·pitəlai'zei©(ə)n] – some common nouns written with capital letters. Capitalization takes place in the following cases:
- In address or personification, which gives some importance and solemnity to the text.
- To show that words are pronounced with emphasis or loudly.
E.g.: And there was dead silence. Till at last came the whisper: “I didn’t kill Henry. No, NO!” (D. H. Lawrence)
“WILL YOU BE QUIET!” he bawled. (A. Sillitoe)
Grapheme multiplication ['græfi:m·m¬ltipli'kei©(ə)n] is a way of showing the speech intensity.
E.g.: Alllll aboarrrrrd! (Ch. Dickens)
… open your eyes for that laaaaarge sun. (A. Wesker)
Graphon ['græfn] (from Greek γράφω – “I am writing”) – the intentional word/word combination graphical shape violation used to reflect authentic pronunciation.
Some graphons show the physical defects of the speaker (stumbling, lisping, etc.).
Clichés:
gimme (give me) lemme (let me)
coupla (couple of) mighta (might have)
gonna (going to) gotta (got to)
willya (will you), etc.
Hyphenation [·haifə'nei©n] – the reflection of rhymed or clipped manner in which a word is uttered.
E.g.: Adieu you, old man, I pity you, and I de – spise you. (Th. Dreiser)
I really do n – o – t love you.
Italics [i'tæliks] – sloping letters used for the following purposes:
- To show foreign words that are considered alien for the text.
E.g.: I want to tell you something tête-à–tête.
- To produce the effect of emphasis.
E.g.: Now listen, Ed, stop that, now. I’m desperate. I am desperate, Ed, do you hear? (Th. Dreiser)
